Kale crop

Owhakatoro Lands Trust is a Maori dairy farm supervised by Brett Petersen who is also a Kiwi Fertiliser representative. The difficult dairy farm is situated near Ruatoki, on the fringes of Te Urewera.

To winter 650 cows, 12 hectares of kale were grown. Sowing took place December 15, 2011, much later than planned for. The soil fertility requirements were determined by Perry Agricultural laboratories, and recommendations made by Kinsey Agricultural Services, both operating from Missouri, USA. We find their input critical to our success. Fertiliser used included DAP*, potassium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, sulphur, and up to six trace elements, depending on need. There were six paddocks involved, and three different soil tests to satisfy. One common fertiliser mix was used, trace elements excepted, for ease of management.

In early winter, the crops were measured and ranged from 16-18 tonnes of dry matter, a growth rate of 100kg/ha/day. An analysis of the kale revealed the nitrogen, at only 20 units was underdone. Add to that the late planting date, and the conclusion is the crop would have been better with an earlier planting date plus adding DAP at the full rate recommended. Still, it was an excellent result costing only 3.7c/kgDM for the fertiliser inputs.

*DAP is used in situations where phosphorus is required in a hurry. We prefer Sechura RPR, but crops such as kale, grasses and others cannot access phosphorus from RPR in the first year, although legumes can.

Fodder beet or similar plants have been domesticated for 500 years. Despite that New Zealand was the only country in the world to graze cattle and deer directly on the crop. There are 14,000ha in the South Island, but only 1,000 ha in the North, but it is rapidly expanding. Fodder beet is the ideal crop for dairy and beef cattle and deer. It has the potential to replace maize and PKE as it is so cheap to grow, when grown properly.

Among its positive attributes are:

A successful crop will be the cheapest feed you grow; way cheaper than PKE or maize, being between 3c and 13c/kgdm. It will be the highest quality feed you can grow. Its ME value will remain constant at about 12 regardless of maturity stage. Other crops lose quality as yield increases, but fodder beet doesn’t, lasting for up to 400 days if required. It is high energy feed. It has very high water soluble carbohydrates. It is very highly digestible. It prefers free-draining light to medium soils including sandy soils. Fodder beet can produce 40 tonnes of DM/ha and will do more, particularly in the North Island. Short of disaster, you can bank on 20 - 25 tonnes. Growth rates can be as high as 200kg/ha DM (and higher to 300 at times), but 100 is very common. Most crops will grow a tonne or more per hectare per week.

A fodder beet crop can be fed from February to November. Stock develop a taste for it very quickly. It can be used for milking cows, dry cows, beef cows, young stock, sheep and deer. Expect an increase in milk solids. Stock will also gain weight, including in winter. It can be fed in situ. No harvesting is required, but you can if you need to. If harvested, it will store in open windrows for 5 months. The utilisation of fodder beet is as close to 100% as you can get. It loves potassium, so is an answer for some farms with high potassium built up from effluent. It tolerates high sodium, so can be used in saline soils. Its nitrogen requirement is relatively low, so the environment is not compromised.

It is more water efficient than brassicas, so does better than them in dry seasons. It is a far better feed proposition than turnips, although it is very much "horses for courses".

Some of the fiddly bits are:

It requires a good paddock, not a poor one. That means one that has been chosen and the fertility corrected well in advance. Seed bed preparation must be superior. For best results, precision drilling is required. Do not drill faster than 4km/hr. The soil temperature needs to be 10 - 12 degrees for 5 days in a row before planting. Weed control must be of the highest order. It is susceptible to certain chemicals that may be already in the soil from previous cropping.

There is only one animal health disorder to be concerned about and that is acidosis. Some literature suggests nitrate and oxalic acid poisoning, and bloat may be a problem. This is not true. Acidosis can be avoided by proper transitioning stock onto fodder beet. Acidosis is not a crop or a fertiliser problem, but a management problem. The transition period is 10 - 14 days. You need to accurately assess yield to know stock intake. Double fence the breaks, to prevent stock from breaking out.

If feeding high DM allowances, some phosphorus and calcium supplementation may be required. Keep an eye on trace mineral levels in stock. Get advice well in advance. She’ll be right won’t work.

This crop was only 20t/ha, but grossed the owner $50,000 during the dry season of 2014 in the Waikato. It was fed out early and prevented the owner from drying the cows off too early. A poor crop is likely to cost 12-13c/kgdm. A good one will be less tha 5c depending on fertiliser status of the paddock chosen. Choosing paddocks that are free of perenial weeds is very important.

Fodder Beet is able to sustain all clases of stock, including lambs. Growth rates on the crop will be superior, enabling accelerated stock fattening to occur. This has the potential of attracting payment premiums.

At Kiwi Fertiliser we are specialists at balancing the soil, having undergone intensive training. If you are contemplating Lucerne as a crop, read on for extensive information.

Lucerne is not a crop that can be rushed into service. The first step is a soil test to establish what is required by way of fertiliser. We recommend PAL in Missouri, so we take samples and complete the paperwork for you.

Lucerne is a very high quality but hungry crop. With a benign climate becoming less reliable, Lucerne offers the opportunity to at least part drought-proof your property and profit. In addition, expensive bought in feed can be reduced or eliminated.

Many crops in NZ are not at all performing to their potential because they are underfed. These crops invariably suffer from weed, pest and disease problems, including premature leaf-drop, and eventually peter out long before they should. Often they are yellow-coloured in spring.

The solution is to balance the soil with quality fertiliser products. In most cases, some capital fertiliser is required, but it can be applied progressively as the budget allows over the first two seasons.

The ryegrass over-sown Lucerne is 70cm tall. This stand has improved immensely since changing to a Kiwi Fertiliser soil fertility programme.

Shortcuts never work. If the crop requires certain fertilisers within a year, they must be applied. The paddocks need to be properly selected and well prepared. That could take a year or more depending on the circumstances. If the paddock is chosen in advance, certain materials such as lime, Dolomite and boron can be applied early, to the existing pasture.

The crop needs to be in the ground by the first week in April, or you should delay until spring. If spring sowing, try to get it in before October 1st, otherwise yield will be decreased for the first year. Spring is the preferred season for planting. Lower temperatures in autumn encourage root growth, but not vegetative growth. That can lead to weeds out-competing the Lucerne.

Up to 20-22 degrees soil temperature, more root growth takes place. Over 22 degrees, more top-growth takes place, so this sets the calendar for establishment. There is risk of dry summers, so it is important to be on time unless irrigation is an option.

The key to soil fertility is calcium and magnesium. If a soil has a deficit of calcium and magnesium, plants will not be able to get their full ration of either nutrient. If sulphur is below optimum, plants will not get the correct amount of calcium and magnesium either.

It is very common for us to see sulphur at the incorrect level. The deficits can be rectified by the application of calculated amounts of lime and/or Dolomite. Lime will release its nutrients over three years; dolomite over 18 months, so benefits will accrue well past application and need to be factored in correctly.

The veteran grower of this Lucerne was taken by surprise by the prolific growth. The cows are on the last break. Bloat is not an issue.

A 20t/ha crop of Lucerne will remove 500kg of nitrogen. 70% of that will come from the air if the Ca:Mg is correct. That’s 350kg; about 100kg will come from the soil leaving 50kg to be added. Do you add N to your Lucerne? Most phosphorus levels we see on flat land are excessive. (E.g. 1100kg/ha when 560 is all that is needed.) For the few soils needing phosphorus, stay with alkaline phosphates.

We find the two most deficient elements are sulphur and potassium. Get sulphur levels to at least 50ppm. Excellent levels are 100-150ppm. The better the humus, the better it will retain anions. That opens the door for compost.

At Kiwi Fertiliser, we add 250kg/ha or more of high quality compost when we can; or a lesser amount of humates. Often potassium is half or less of requirement. Where animals graze pastures, adding potassium has its challenges. But if the crops are used for supplement, the opportunity to correct potassium must not be missed. In fact, it is essential.

Correct calcium and magnesium levels in the soil are vital for controlling potassium levels in the herbage. Potassium translates into quality, quantity and disease tolerance. It hastens recovery after harvest, and ensures long-life of a stand. Leaf-drop and spotting are eliminated. It also improves leaf to stem ratio, winter hardiness, and N-fixing.

But there is a catch. The higher the potassium content of Lucerne, the lower the calcium, magnesium and sodium content. The higher the chlorine content, the lower the nitrogen, sulphur, boron and phosphorus content. This means lower protein and lower quality. We prefer to use potassium sulphate, not potassium chloride.

Concerning trace elements, boron is essential and needs to be at least 1.75ppm. Copper at 2-15ppm, preferably 10 or more. Zinc must line up with phosphorus. High phosphorus, high zinc & vice versa. Iron must always read higher than manganese; not the other way around. Selenium confers insect tolerance, and cobalt and molybdenum are essential for nitrogen fixation.

This crop was planted in early May 2013.

Lucerne observations and more

There are several things that caught my eye while scanning through a Beef and Lamb Lucerne blog. Chemicals, insects, weeds, and fertiliser are among them.

The Americans use Alfalfa to mop up nutrient excesses. We seem to use Lucerne to create deficiencies. The American excesses are a result of feed lot manure from 50,000 or whatever number of cattle being spread on relatively small areas of land. They then plant Alfalfa and cut that for forage for the cattle for a few years, then perhaps lease the area out to a vegetable grower for a while before the cycle starts again. They are not legally allowed to use the manured areas for at least two years to produce food for human consumption because of Salmonella concerns.

Lucerne is a gross-feeder. It is a very hungry crop. If you want it to out-last and out-compete weeds, then feed it. If you want to produce 20t/haDM and more, then that crop will remove approx. 500kg N, 440 K, 275 Ca, 56 P, 56 Mg, 56 S, and 1.2 Mn, 1 Cu 0.8 B 0.4, Fe 0.4, Zn 0.3, and Mo 0.02. These figures may vary, but what matters is, the crop will take all you throw at it, and in 90% of cases, more.

Let’s work through the list.

Nitrogen, 70% from the air is 350 kg; then 100 kg from the soil is 450 kg, leaving 50 Kg to be applied from the bag. That 70% from the air is not by right either. You’ve got to earn that right. That is achieved by ensuring you have:

(1) adequate calcium and magnesium in the correct amounts. This requirement is calculated for each soil.

(2) Available phosphate, at least 560kg/ha.

(3) Available iron, at least 200ppm, but be aware, iron may be found at depths beyond the soil probe.

(4) Cobalt at about 1ppm and

(5) Mo at about 1ppm.

This crop is not on a Kiwi Fertiliser programme, but is run by a farm consultant. Among other things, it is probably subject to too much calcium and not enough magnesium. Note the weeds. On our crops, other than at establishment, no weed sprays are necessary.

Potassium is perhaps the nutrient we have found to be the most deficient; about 50% in a lot of cases. Not only that, but most people use potassium chloride because it is the cheapest form of potassium. Bollocks! Use potassium sulphate instead. For a start, you won’t get those aphids we keep reading about. I've seen them on neighbouring crops too, but they are only a temporary on our crops, at the beginning of when a grower converts to our programme. You won’t have to spray toxic chemicals. You’ll grow a better crop. Besides that, there are many reasons to change and they all point to greater profit in your pocket.

• More Energy. Potassium Sulphate costs more per unit, but delivers better value. Money spent on potassium sulphate will purchase less fertiliser by weight than will one dollar on potassium chloride; but the dollars spent on sulphate will buy significantly more crop growth energy. 47% of potassium chloride is chloride and of little use for crop growth. The more chloride plants have, the less anions they will have, including sulphte and nitrate. In contrast almost 100% of potassium sulphate is useable by the plant.

• Lower Salt Index. Potassium sulphate has a salt index of 46. Potassium chloride is 116. The higher the index, the greater the chance of damaging germinating seeds, seedlings and soil biology.

• Better Uptake of Potassium. Uptake of potassium requires it to be in the phosphate of potassium form. When there is an excess of chlorides the bonding of potassium with phosphate is blocked. The end result is less potassium uptake into the plant in the preferred form. The sulphate form does not overwhelm the soil solution with chloride ions and consequently more potassium is taken up by the plant.

• Microbial Stimulation vs. Microbial Suppression. Sulphates have a stimulating effect on the microbial system in the soil whereas chlorides at high levels are very hard on soil biology and are seldom recommended by creditable sources. A small amount of chloride is actually beneficial for soil microbes. This modest requirement is easily met by the 1-2% in potassium sulphate.

• High rates of chlorides can destroy soil carbons. Humus destruction leads to greater nitrogen leaching as soil nitrogen levels are dependent on humus levels. The better the humus percent, the more anions (particularly nitrate, sulphur and boron), are held in the soil, and the better the moisture retention. Potassium chloride is the product above any others that makes your soil as hard as concrete in summer.

• Plants and soils need sulphur. Most NZ soils are sulphur deficient. In order for plants to make oils and sulphur bearing amino acids such as cysteine and methionine the plants need an adequate supply of sulphur in the sulphate form. This is exactly what potassium sulphate supplies.

• Better palatability. Pastures, crops, vegetables and fruit taste poorly when the potassium comes from potassium chloride (that’s right, even stock prefer fodder grown with potassium sulphate). This happens because chlorides are also taken up by the plants. Fruit and vegetables grown with calcium chloride taste bitter; this is the main reason why children reject vegetables.

• Less is more. The application of 100kg of sulphate will usually give a greater plant response than 200kg of chloride. This relates to a soil where the cations are balanced and soil potassium is adequate.

• Potassium translates into quality and quantity. The life of your stand depends on it. Potassium is vital for quality and yield. It hastens recovery after harvest, and ensures long-life of a stand. Leaf-drop and spotting are eliminated. It also improves leaf to stem ratio, winter hardiness, and nitrogen-fixing.

• Calcium. How many of you add calcium to change pH? How about adding calcium because the soil and the plants need calcium? Calcium, along with boron carries other nutrients into the plant. Leaf test prior, then apply Ccalcium alone, test again and see the difference in levels of all nutrients. Each soil has its own sweet spot as far as calcium (and magnesium) is concerned. That can only be established after soil testing and calculating it.

• Phosphorus is required between 336 and 560kg/ha in the soil, (sometimes higher) depending on how light or heavy it is, but mostly around the 560 level. I have seen many soil tests where it is about 1,000, and still the farmer is too scared not to apply more. What a waste of money, quality and potential.

• Magnesium. How many of you apply lime without magnesium? Each time you do that, the magnesium percent of the base saturation is driven down on a 1 to 1 basis, provided it is high enough in the first place, which it rarely is. Many soils get over-limed too, making matters worse. Lack of magnesium (or too much calcium) can cause yellowing in Lucerne foliage. However, deficient nitrogen, sulphur, manganese, and iron can also have the same yellowing effect, making a correct diagnosis difficult. As for calcium, the correct level of magnesium can only be established from a soil test.

• Sulphur increases the girth of plants. It is required with nitrogen to form amino acids which in turn form protein. Too often it is left out, or too little is added to the fertiliser. It leaches because we are collectively converting soil carbon into atmospheric carbon. The higher the organic matter, the more sulphur you can attach to humus in the soil. Sulphur also influences flavour (palatability). It would be alongside potassium as the most deficient nutrient found.

• Manganese needs to be 50-250 ppm in the soil. It’s involved with seed formation & can improve germination and survival of seeds for those growing seed crops.

• Copper is needed from 2 ppm to 15 ppm. The higher side is better. It improves plant and stock health benefits and confers elasticity in plants, so they will stand up better, reducing lodging. Fruit growers do not appreciate branches breaking when loaded with fruit. Correct copper, potassium and manganese can prevent that from happening.

• Boron is hugely important, partnering calcium and silicon. Without boron, the plant cannot transfer sugars from leaves to the roots. Boron is required at at least 1.75ppm in the soil. Boron toxicity is not a consideration when the calcium level is correct.

• Iron needs to be at least 200ppm, but always at least 5ppm ahead of manganese. There are plenty of soils out there the other way around. You really don’t want to be in that category. The manganese will oxidize the iron in the leaf in that situation. Iron can be found beneath the depth of a soil test probe, so do not apply iron before ascertaining that the situation requires it.

• Zinc partners phosphorus. If phosphorus is high, zinc needs to be 19.5 ppm in the soil. If phosphorus is very low, zinc at 6 ppm is adequate. There are many cases of high phosphorus but low zinc all over the country. In those cases, water efficiency will suffer. If zinc is high & phosphorus is low, the phosphorus will be blocked. When it is the other way around, zinc uptake by plants will be blocked. Either way, water efficiency of the plant suffers.

• Molybdenum needs to be at 1ppm in the soil. I have seen dozens of soil tests where it is around 6-8 ppm. If that is the case, get the copper up pronto. I have only recommended molybdenum to be applied to one crop I have tested. That was citrus and the grower pointed out the visible symptoms that were later confirmed by the PAL soil test. The molybdenum level was 0.95ppm, but those deficiency symptoms were quite visible.

Insect pests and other problems

It seems this phenomenon is very common. That may have you thinking it’s normal. It’s not normal at all. If you get aphids, caterpillars or whatever, change your soil fertility advisor. Either he/she is not recommending the right fertilisers, or you are not spending enough on the right products and too much on the wrong products.

Insects are not the result of a deficiency of toxic sprays. Insect problems are a result of poor plant nutrition. Poor plant nutrition stems from nutrient imbalances in the soil. Those imbalances transfer to stock as well. Get the soil nutrition right and never spray poisons again.

I've mentioned potassium chloride above. Not enough potassium has a similar effect; so do chemical sprays. Protein synthesis needs to take place, not proteolysis which is the opposite and occurs when the plants are not nourished properly.

“It was discovered that the degree of virus disease increased with the dosage of atrazine. A dose of 20 ppm applied to the soil increased symptoms by up to 100%. That was because the toxin altered the biochemical composition of foliar tissues, particularly phosphorus, potassium, calcium, iron, copper, boron, aluminium and zinc. Plus nitrogen levels were elevated in both corn and sorghum. Similarly, simazine increased nitrogen in wheat by 30%, and raised certain amino acids, including asparagine which is preferred by diseases; i.e. leafhoppers proliferated on maize. 2,4-D caused proliferation of aphids, caterpillars and fungi on maize. Other researchers came up with identical conclusions with 2,4-D use on oats and barley. Two prominent researchers concluded: “Since 1945, numerous reports tell of increased losses through insect and pathogen attack, despite ever greater efforts at pest control. While it is difficult to calculate to what extent these increases are due to the biochemical and ecological impacts of herbicide use, herbicides have been blamed in numerous cases for causing problems of parasitism in treated plants."

Nguyen et al. (1972) studied Alfalfa and stressed; "a good balance" of NPK leads to:

• A decrease in the amino acid content of the tissues.
• An acceleration of their incorporation into proteins.
• An increase in yields.

Fenton (1959) found that treating Lucerne with parathion, toxaphene and dementon, increased populations of aphids.

The lessons to be taken from the above is to practice balanced nutrition; an activity easier said than done if you don’t know the rules.

Weeds

If you have weeds, then the conditions suit them. Change the conditions to suit the crop as outlined above. Sure you may have to spray at the beginning, but once your crop is away, and you feed it properly, those weeds will not keep up. In two or three years, (or less) they’ll be gone.

If you do spray, add 1 litre/ha of Fulvic acid to the chemical. It is a carbon source and has the ability to reduce chemical damage to the soil and the plant, while enhancing the target kill without any other additives. The chemical rate can also be reduced. It’s a very cheap product.

Spraying without Fulvic acid can damage the soil

That damage is very much reduced with Fulvic acid

Hollow stems

Usually, Lucerne stems are hollow. Not only is a hollow-stem crop lighter, but it also lacks quality. The material that packs the stem centres is pectin. Pectin is made up of polysaccharides that contribute to quality and animal nutrition. Most farmers are growing hollow-stemmed Lucerne. Just cut a stem about 150 mm from the crown and check. If the stems are hollow, find out to what extent. It may start 50 mm above the crow, but become solid again 100 mm or 200 mm further up the stem. Our mission is to fill the stems with those goodies described above.

Virtually all plants in this crop have 25-30 stems per crown.

There is one correct way to grow any crop, and that is to have your soil tests sent to a creditable laboratory and get a competent recommendation from those results. We at Kiwi Fertiliser have found the best results are to be had from the Perry Agricultural Lab (PAL) and Kinsey Agricultural Services, (KAS) both in Missouri. Our field staff are also trained to interpret and/or alter the recommendations to suit local conditions, materials and time of year.

There are no quick fixes; it is a minimum of a three year programme for best results. Some common problems we encounter are:

• low soil fertility in general
• high phosphorus levels
• over-liming and low organic matter

Too much calcium ties up trace elements, (iron, manganese, boron, zinc); and drives down magnesium and potassium. Incorrect magnesium impacts on phosphorus and nitrogen efficiency by up to 50%. Since the calcium-magnesium percent in a soil determines pore space, water efficiency is also decreased. Low or imbalanced soil fertility leads to low quality animal feed. Low quality animals lead to low profit.

Too many farmers and growers are just not making financial headway. That leads to corners being cut. The farm consultants are leading that charge, and it needs to stop. Too many think that higher inputs lead to lower returns, when the correct inputs lead to higher returns. They just don’t know what those correct inputs are.

The purpose of growing supplements is to improve the nutrition of the stock that eats it. If that supplement is below par, the stock need more of it, but more does not improve stock health; it just costs more.

Dryland maize at Galatea, 3.8m tall.

All effort should be aimed at maximising the health of the crop. That, believe it or not, maximises yield. 95% of yield comes from the atmosphere, 5% from the soil. The soil needs to be correctly balanced.

Soil carbon levels are decreasing. A 1% increase in organic matter can improve yield by 12%. Are you raising organic matter?

There are 74,000 tonnes of nitrogen above every hectare on earth. To convert some of that free N, you need an appropriate calcium:magnesium percent; available phosphorus and available iron, plus cobalt and molybdenum. The bacteria and other microbes do the rest.

Work with nature, not against her. 60% of sugar manufactured in the leaf is transferred to the roots. 50% of that is exuded into the soil to feed microbes. The microbes in the soil solubilize minerals for plant uptake. It’s a win-win situation. No boron, no transfer. Ensure you have luxury amounts (not excesses) of phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and boron (the Big Four) for superior crops. That comes back to a meaningful soil test and a specific fertiliser recommendation, not guess work.

A record crop depite showing signs of insufficient potassium.

Each soil has a precise finger print. Using two examples on a particular soil, the PAL figures are 3515 kg/ha calcium, and 372 kg/ha Mg. That means get as close as you can to those figures for top quality and quantity yield. Local soil test results show 7.1 me/100g for calcium, and an optimum range of 4-10 me/100g. How confusing. Does that soil need to be at 4, 7 or 10?

For magnesium, the local one shows 1.42, with a range of 1.0-1.6. Both these nutrients are in the centre of the range, but both calcium and magnesium are woefully inadequate with levels of 1792 and 242 according to PAL. That is a shortfall of 1723 kg/ha (49%) for calcium and 130 kg/ha (35%) for magnesium. Get the magnesium up and you can get your nitrogen down, and optimise phosphorus utilisation.

Potassium is another nutrient often in short supply. It’s expensive, but you need about eight times the plants requirement available in the soil, to allow the plant to take up enough. That translates on a PAL soil test to 5% of base saturation. We use potassium sulphate, most others use potassium chloride. Potassium chloride is cheaper, but potassium sulphate is more effective, ensuring better results. Sulphate is better value for money than chloride.

We at Kiwi Fertiliser do not deal with inferior fertilisers. We will not compromise on quality. Mediocrity is the enemy of excellence.

Merv Solly (Golden Bay Dolomite) and Don Hart (Top Soils) are dwarfed by the 35t silage crop on the same fertilser programme in California, that we use in New Zealand.

Lodging is caused by lack of potassium, manganese, copper or all three. It’s easily rectified and there’s no guessing required. With sulphate sulphur, the local test says 10-12 mg/kg is “medium” while 26 ppm is “high.” We say anything up to 12 ppm is very low, 40 ppm is good and 50-150 ppm is excellent. Sulphur increases girth. The greater the stalk size, the more able it is to pump nutrients into the cob, - more importantly, cobs.

To have soil tests done, phone Ron McLean 0800 549 433 or Brett Petersen 0800 549 442.

Iodine is concentrated in the thyroid (synthesises thyroxine) and ovaries. It is involved in energy metabolism, Vitamin A metabolism, body temperature, growth and immune function. Seafood, kelp, eggs and free range hens are rich in iodine. Ruminant ration ranges from 0.5 - 2.0 ppm. Symptoms of deficiency include big neck in calves and enlargement of the thyroid gland. Brassicas like kale and swede can be goitrogenic (inhibit iodine uptake to the thyroid).

15 to 20 mg of iodine per cow per day may be required to compensate (or 2mg of iodine per kg of dry matter). Chloride and fluoride are halogens which can inhibit iodine.

Kelp is the best natural source of iodine.

Molybdenum plays an important role in detoxification, preventing nitrosamine formation. Lamb, lentils, squash, green beans and carrots may be rich in molybdenum. Molybdenum is part of the enzyme xanthine oxidase. Symptoms of deficiency include weight loss, emaciation and diarrhoea. Molybdenum is included in some stock food supplements. The plant processes involving conversion of ammonium nitrogen into protein take place in the roots. This always involves energy, so the roots signal the above-ground plant to increase photosynthesis and thereby boost glucose delivery. This is one of the reasons for the greening effect associated with application of ammonium fertilisers. Nitrates awaiting conversion in the roots move into the leaf where they are converted to amines, amino acids and protein. This energy draining process requires an enzyme called the nitrate reductase enzyme. This enzyme is dependent upon sulfur and, most importantly, Mo. If you have ignored molybdenum, the nitrates remain unconverted in the leaf, the insects receive a calling card and consumers get to eat food filled with toxic nitrates.

Low level molybdenum toxicity can seriously affect fertility. Molybdenum needs to be at 1ppm in the soil. We have seen dozens of soil tests where it is around 6-8 ppm. If that is the case, get the copper up pronto. I have only recommended molybdenum to be applied to one crop I have tested. That was citrus and the grower pointed out the visible symptoms that were later confirmed by the PAL soil test. The Mo level was 0.95ppm, but those deficiency symptoms were quite visible. Required at 1-2 ppm in soil. Rarely deficient.

Dead and dying calves

Many thanks for the extra data very interesting soils, so low in magnesium and the high molybdenum is a very big issue.

The molybdenum if coming through in the plant tissues will antagonise copper severely, and cause a severe copper deficiency.

Copper is required to switch on iron, and iron is already low on theses soils and may also be in the plants.

Iron is required to carry oxygen around the body in the red blood cells, without iron the animal will become anaemic, silent heats will occur, they will show lack of vigour, and ill thrift, they will have pale eyelids, gums and inner vulvas.

The low copper can result in falling disease, sudden death with seemingly no symptoms, because the blood vessels have collapsed, and heart attack has occurred, side wall cracks in hooves and overlong toes will be seen, the animals will have a roan colour to their coat, and be hairy. Low magnesium lets potassium dominate which can cause poor microbial balance in the rumen and cause a sodium, potassium imbalance so bloat is more likely as is grass tetany and milk fever and osteoporosis.

Magnesium is also a calming mineral so animal behaviour may also be erratic.

Any tissue tests on the paddocks they may have would be very useful additional information.

Phosphate is obviously not the limiting factor. Magnesium is a phosphorus synergist carrying P into the plant. If there is not enough P getting into the plant in high P soils i.e. 500kg P2O5, then there is inadequate microbial activity in the soil and inadequate magnesium arriving at the plant.

The Thiamin disease you referred to is a Vitamin B1 deficiency.

This is induced by high sulphur and or moly and very low copper levels in the feed the animal is eating.

Symptoms are blindness, head pressing (tipping the head to one side) and circling before finally sitting down on their haunches and dying.

Thiamin can be injected, but is only good at keeping the animal alive short term.

The key is to supplement with copper and B group vitamins.

Kelp is very good for the supply of all B vitamins and maybe even better is yeast, and copper can be injected or supplied in a rumen bolus or even as a lick of copper sulphate. These animals will not gain weight or be productive until the problem is addressed.

Peter Norwood

B App Sc Ag

Dip Nutritional Balancing & Hair Mineral Analysis

Full Circle Nutrition

28 Dixon St

Stratford

Vic 3862

Australia

ph 03 51457039

mob 0417446581

email: nutritionfullcircle@gmail.com

Selenium is a key component in glutathione peroxidase, (anti-oxidant activity). It is involved in thyroid hormone conversion and binds heavy metals. Selenium is part of enzymes associated with immune support. It should be combined with vitamin E for maximum performance. Deficiency symptoms include weepy eyes, white muscle disease, retained placenta, zigzag pattern droppings, low tail carriage and therefore dirty rear-end. This mineral can limit sub-clinical mastitis. Sources include oil meals, Lucerne, oats, veterinary and commercial supplements which may contain 1.0-3.0 ppm

Finnish potato research reported a 30% increase in mean tuber weight of potatoes with selenium supplementation. This was linked to enhanced photo oxidative stress tolerance. Chinese researchers report an increase in rice yields. European research showed leaf levels as low as 10 ppm of selenium served to reduce aphid populations by 50%. Selenium is found in seafood, Brazil nuts, brewer's yeast, butter, garlic, kelp and molasses.

Weepy eyes is a sign of selenium deficiency.

The B-Group vitamins are arguably the most important nutrient deficiency in the soil and in humans.

Krasilinokoff measured soil fertility based on the relative presence of B vitamins.

Microbes cannot manufacture vitamin B12. B12 comes from cobalt and cobalt is ignored in many soil programs. Vitamin B12 is a major human deficiency (over 74%)

Cobalt supports nitrogen fixing organisms. Vitamin B12 is important for fertility, cellular longevity, nutrient absorption and metabolism of fats and carbohydrates. Ketosis and Johne's disease may be related to cobalt deficiency. The ideal human intake is 1 mcg daily. Ruminants require from 0.10-1.0 ppm in their rations. Cobalt is important for the growth and vitality of rumen microorganisms.

Symptoms of a deficiency include poor appetite, decreased milk production and rough coat; also lack of nodules, or small white nodules on clover.

Sources of cobalt include Cobalt sulphate added to the soil, trace mineralised salt and vitamin B12 supplements. It is required at 1-2ppm in the soil, but rarely is at this level.

Cobalt for Soil and Animal Health

Posted on March 19, 2005 by Jerry Brunetti •

The amazing alchemical phenomenon exhibited by ruminants in converting fibrous raw materials from forages into nutrient-dense meat and milk containing quality proteins, fatty acids and other lipids found in meat and milk is due in large degree to fermentation occurring in the “first” stomach, the rumen. Fermentation by ruminal micro-organisms is dependent upon a myriad of influences, and one of these is the presence of the trace element cobalt. Cobalt is a core element of vitamin B₁₂  or cyanocobalamin, which was isolated in 1948 and was recognized as the reason why liver consumption could cure pernicious anemia in humans, since B₁₂ is found in generous quantities in the liver.

Vital to Ruminants

Ruminant animals such as cows, sheep, goats and deer can produce vitamin B₁₂  if there is adequate cobalt in the diet. Monogastric (“one stomach”) animals such as pigs and chickens are much more dependent upon the intake of actual B₁₂, “ready made” in the diet, since they do not have the advantage of an additional gut capable of synthesizing B₁₂. Thus, ruminant animals play a vital role in the food chain as producers of vitamin B₁₂.

Ruminants utilize the process of gluconeogenesis for providing tissue demands for glucose. This occurs by a breakdown of propionate (one of the volatile fatty acids synthesized via fermentation in the rumen) into glucose via a specific pathway, and B₁₂  plays a critical role in this process.
So when we talk about cobalt in animal nutrition, we are really talking about vitamin B₁₂, since 3 to 13 percent of the cobalt in the diet of a ruminant animal is incorporated by rumen microbes into vitamin B₁₂.

Although the liver of ruminants can store sufficient amounts of B₁₂  for up to several months, vitamin B₁₂ production in the rumen drops off rapidly within days if there is a cobalt deficiency in the diet, affecting digestion health and efficiency.

Deficiencies

Deficiencies (called “pining” in livestock) include loss of appetite; thiamine or vitamin B1 deficiency; reduced plasma levels of ascorbate, glucose and alkaline phosphatase, elevated plasma levels of pyruvate, pyruvate kinase, serum GOT forminino-glutamic acid and thyroxine, which affects the functioning of the hypothalamus.

Cobalt deficiency is associated with the incidence of Johnne’s disease, the ruminant analog of Crohn’s disease in humans. Johnne’s disease or paratuberculosis is a huge problem in today’s confinement dairy system.

Ketosis may be partly associated with B₁₂  (cobalt) deficiency and it is known that cobalt interacts with iodine to promote normal thyroid function.

Feeding luxurious amounts of cobalt to ruminants enhances ruminal digestion of feeds, especially poorer quality forages, apparently because it stimulates the production of certain microbial populations that have higher cobalt requirements. Good hay will contain adequate cobalt; Kentucky bluegrass, known to nourish the most magnificent horses, is relatively high in cobalt. Dairy cattle in confinement receive feed to which is added cobalt sulfate at a rate of about 2 grams per ton.

Beyond B₁₂

Cobalt appears to have properties or characteristics unique to itself as a trace element, regardless of its indispensable role in vitamin B₁₂  production. Cobalt contributes to resistance against parasites and infection, in concert with other trace elements such as copper, zinc and iron.

For example, as an integral ingredient in a multi-trace element formula, cobalt contributed to reversing incurable brucellosis infection in cattle, this according to Lady Eve Balfour (founder of the British Soil Association), in her article “9,600 Miles in a Station Wagon, Some Findings by Agricultural Scientists” published in 1951. Back in 1940, Dr. Ira Allison, MD, utilized a multiple-trace mineral formula containing cobalt to treat 322 patients with the human variant of brucellosis, called undulant fever. All patients recovered, and three and a half years later, there was not one relapse.

In New Zealand, cattle and sheep around the Rotorrua tableland country, particularly sheep, did not thrive. The land was known as “cattle sick” country until a soil specialist discovered a cobalt deficiency in the soil. The land was treated with 2 ounces cobalt per acre, which quickly solved the problem.

Similarly, Russian sheep grazing on cobalt-deficient pastures showed severe lung infection, and when treated with cobalt, the result was a greatly reduced incidence of this bacterial infection. Cattle in Florida suffering from cobalt and copper deficiency were afflicted with chronic hookworm infestation, as published in the Journal of Dairy Science  (74) back in 1937.

A condition in cattle and sheep known as “Phalaris staggers” results when these animals graze upon a grass known as Phalaris tuberosa on cobalt-deficient soils. Animals will succumb to symptoms of muscular tremors, lack of coordination, rapid breathing and heartbeat. Apparently, the Phalaris contains a mylelin-destroying neurotoxin, and merely applying 4-5 ounces per acre of cobalt sulfate, or supplementing cobalt in the ration, is capable of preventing this problem. The detoxification pathway apparently is located in the gastro-intestinal ecosystem because injectable cobalt is not effective. A similar condition occurs is South Africa on animals grazing Ronpha pastures, and is also remedied with copper and cobalt.

In his book Metabolic Aspects of Health  (1979), Dr. John Meyers states that cobalt in the soil makes worm control a relatively easy matter. In Russia, sheep grazing on cobalt-deficient pastures showed severe lung infection by gram-negative cocci, and treatment of the sheep with cobalt resulted in a greatly reduced incidence of infection by this bacterium. In Florida, “salt sick” cattle (a dual copper and cobalt deficiency) had chronic hookworm infection.

As for humans, Meyers discusses at length how cobalt seems to possess amazing properties that reconcile the following symptoms: profuse nose bleeding (by strengthening the integrity of the blood vessels); herpes simplex blisters; improving light sensitivity of the retina while reducing irritation from light glare (when used along with copper and iodine); stimulating adequate eye mucous for lubrication; allowing the cuticle and the nail to grow faster and more soundly; assisting the skin to become stronger and more pliable; arresting and even reversing the growth of warts.

It is important to recognize the relative ration requirements between (especially) cobalt and copper, zinc and iodine. Excessive amounts of antagonistic minerals may create shortfalls of cobalt, even though tissue test, hair analysis, or blood tests indicate adequate amounts of cobalt. The best test indicator for cobalt in livestock is a liver analysis.

Cobalt and the Soil

The optimum source of cobalt for livestock are forages grown on cobalt-rich soils. The North American continent, which at one time was one of the largest soil mineral reservoirs on the planet, has been severely degraded, especially the last 100 years, due to the plowing of sensitive grasslands leading to unspeakable amounts of erosion; the over-use of chemical-based fertilizers, primarily nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium, caused numerous trace elements to be leached and also oxidized the humus in the soil. Humus is the living fraction of soil that is the “inventory box” of nutrients that are natively found in the soil, or that have been applied to soils.

Additionally, these high-salt fertilizers, chemically very unstable, react with other slow-release nutrients that crops harvest from the rhizosphere or root ball of plants in the legume family. These chemical reactions cause complexes, or tie-ups, that reduce nutrient availability to the crop.

Cobalt is actually a plant “bio-stimulant,” similar to molybdenum, because it is required by nitrogen-fixing bacteria, especially on the root nodules of legumes.

Like all trace elements in the soil, cobalt is a precursor to enzymes. Enzymes are produced by plants and microbes in order to increase the uptake of elements as well as assist in the synthesis, within the crop, of raw materials that are necessary to produce completely nutrient-dense foods suitable for consumption by livestock and humans. These nutrient-dense compounds found in the pigments are necessary for the plant to resist fungal and insect attack. Consumed by animals and humans, these compounds act as anti-oxidants, immune fuels, endocrine balancers, anti-microbials, tissue repair enhancers and free radical scavengers.

Cobalt thus belongs to the family of rare elements that contribute so much to the soil organisms, to plant performance and to healthy animal physiology.

This article appeared in Wise Traditions in Food, Farming and the Healing Arts , the quarterly magazine of the Weston A. Price Foundation, Spring 2005.

Jerry Brunetti

Jerry Brunetti is managing director of Agri-Dynamics, a 27-year-old company engaged in holistic livestock husbandry and soil, forage, water and plant tissue analysis and recommendations. Jerry's experience also includes a cow/calf operation, natural animal medicines, biological products and services for the golf course industry and providing seminars and workshops on alternatives in human health. An honorary board member of the Weston A Price Foundation, in 1999 Jerry was diagnosed with cancer (non-Hodgkin's lymphoma), and given six months to live. He did not submit to chemotherapy, but rather, developed his own unique dietary approach to enhance his immune system. His DVDs include "Keys to Herd Health," "Holistic Veterinary Care" with Hugh Karreman, VMD and "Cancer, Nutrition, and Healing."

Jerry died in January 2015. 

Zinc is the "energy micro-nutrient" required for correct functioning of many enzyme systems, being an important enzyme activator, second only to magnesium in terms of the number of enzymes to which it is linked. It is essential for phosphorous uptake, and is needed for ADP and ATP production. It regulates plant sugar and transforms carbohydrates. Zn is critical for uptake of moisture through roots. Zinc is required for synthesis of nucleic acids and is critical for soil organisms. Crops sensitive to Zn deficiency are; maize, linseed, green beans, fruit crops, pastures and cereals, (being involved in filling grain properly).

Zinc governs the production of auxins which determine leaf size, starch formation and may give the largest response of any trace element. Zinc must be properly matched with phosphorus in the soil. If phosphorus is high, zinc needs to be high. If phosphorus is low, zinc needs to be low. If they are out of kilter, the high one can block the low one.

Zinc antagonises iron, copper and sulphur so these should be “background nutrition” if they are marginal when applying zinc. Copper fungicides can induce a zinc deficiency. Zinc is essential to cell growth, replication, sexual maturity and reproduction. It works alongside vitamin A. It is essential to the immune system, natural killer cells and the thymus gland. It improves disease resistance, reproduction and reduces skin and feet disorders.

Zinc deficiency is directly linked to prostate cancer and breast cancer (our two largest cancers)

Ideal human intake is 15-20 mg/day. Cattle rations need to have 50-100 ppm.

Beef, shellfish, cheese and dark chocolate, leafy greens are rich in zinc; it is needed for the healing of wounds and for robust rumen organisms. Symptoms of zinc deficiency include decreased weight gains, lowered feed efficiency and poor wound healing. Required at 6-19.5ppm in the soil depending on phosphorus levels.

Summary

Diseases, pests and insect problems can easily be avoided by having a balanced soil. You cannot treat each nutrient in isolation; it is not that simple. Every nutrient, major or minor must be in balance. To achieve that, adding minute quantities may keep symptoms away, but not remove the potential cause of a particular problem. It takes approximately 2kg of a particular element to raise soil levels by about 1ppm. Soil applied nutrients delivered through forage, supply the correct bio-available forms to the animals that eat them. Supplemental feeding, in many cases is merely treating symptoms, not addressing the causes. E.g. feeding animals manganese may not prevent brucellosis, but applying it to the soil may. Once the soil is adequately supplied with all relevant minerals, they take a long time to deplete.

Copper is the element linked to protection from fungal disease. It is the "protein nutrient", increasing the uptake of ammonium form of nitrogen; it is essential for chlorophyll production, sugar synthesis and root metabolism, and it increases stalk strength and elasticity.

Although necessary for some microbes, copper can also have a fungicidal effect in the soil.

Copper is widely used and abused as a fungicide resulting in a toxic build-up in the soil, but Humic acid can help to buffer the microbe-killing effect. High copper also antagonises phosphorous, iron and zinc. Get copper into the leaf by way of building soil levels, rather than onto the leaf as a more sustainable disease control option. Cu sprays on the leaf cause a physiological change which may make the leaf more susceptible to disease agents.

Copper is critical for iron transportation in the blood and formation of hemoglobin, and is an anti-oxidant. It is also critical in the formation of the myelin sheath and is associated with elastin. It is a component of catalase and tyrosinase. Ruminants require 25-100 ppm in their feed; human optimum daily intake is 2-4 mg/day

Organ meats, shellfish, legumes and mushroom are rich in copper. Copper is an important coenzyme linked to immunity and detoxification. Symptoms of deficiency include severe diarrhoea, abnormal appetite, poor growth, and a course bleached coat. Split bark, lodging and brittle branches result from coper deficiency. High OM, molybdenum, iron or sulphur can induce copper deficiency, as can excess phosphate. Sources of copper include copper sulphate, licks, powder, blocks etc.

Copper sulphate can be added to troughs at 1gm/1000lt to control algae or 4gms/1000lt as a supplement. It can also be applied as a paste (2%) to control ring worm.

The minimum soil level is 2ppm; but get to 5-15ppm for better plant and animal stock health.